Tag: APA

Integrating Quotations | Part 1 (APA)

Introduction

If you want to see dramatic improvement in your writing, then focus on integrating quotations. It’s an area where many people struggle. Whereas in ordinary speech we easily introduce the words of others (he said; she was like), it somehow seems more difficult in writing. That’s why learning the rules is time well spent.

In fact, being able to integrate quotations will give you the confidence to interact with the ideas of others, to be part of a larger discussion. Quoting is not just about referencing a few lines of text that seem vaguely relevant. It’s about having a conversation.

On this page we’ll cover the basics of integrating quotations. All examples follow APA style rules. Note that APA papers tend to include few direct quotations, as paraphrasing is the preferred method of citing sources. Quotations are normally reserved for definitions, to capture an author’s apt phrasing, or to interact with the specific wording of the source (Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 8.25).

The Basics

The parts of a quotation

In academic writing, nearly every quotation is made up of three parts: a signal phrase, the quote itself, and some kind of citation:

Signal Phrase + Quote + Citation

Example: As Kurt Ramble (2006) argued, “Urban farming should be incorporated in the elementary school curriculum” (p. 78).

The signal phrase consists of your own words that signal to the reader that there’s a quotation coming.

The quotation can be long or short. If it’s quite long then it may have to be formatted differently as a block quotation.

As for the citation, in this guide we will be using parentheses, but you could use footnotes or endnotes if you’re not following APA conventions. When citing multiple pages, use the abbreviation pp. instead of p.

Now that we know the three basic parts of a quotation we can zoom in a little more. Most quotations share the following details.

Parts of a Quotation Formatted Using the APA Style Rules

You’ll notice that this passage is not crammed full of bibliographic information. Most of the time you need mention only the author, the date of publication, and the page or line number. You can also place all this information in the final parentheses:

Drinking a can of coke has an immediate effect on the body: “Because you have just swallowed your entire daily intake of sugar, your liver goes into overdrive and turns sugar into fat” (Sindhu, 2011, p. 41).

Any other details should be saved for the final references list. For example, you should mention titles mainly if they are directly relevant to your argument or if you are citing multiple works by the same author.

Types of Signal Phrases

Quotations are categorized by the way they are introduced, and there are three different signal phrases.

The short expression

One of the easiest ways to introduce a quotation is to announce who the speaker or author is and to add a verb that describes the way in which the idea is expressed:

As Truculent (2015) wrote, “The best part of the pizza is the crust” (p. 314).

In 2018, Evans suggested, “Cell phones and tablets have increasingly overlapping capabilities” (p. 58).

There are plenty of other verbs that work equally well (APA normally uses the past tense):

argued, believed, noted, stated, implied, observed, etc.

Note that many of these constructions are introduced by the conjunction as:

As Smith argued, …

In addition, sometimes you might use a verb that indicates not how the idea is expressed, but how it is received:

We read, …

Now it should be pointed out that your signal phrase can include quite a bit more than the author and the verb. Here are some instances where the “short expression” is not all that short:

As Randolph (2017) suggested, in a salacious memoir that caused quite a scandal, “There was always inappropriate behaviour at his parties.”

Connelly (2012) mentions the contrary opinion of Judge Gavel, who wrote, “No jury should convict on those grounds” (as cited in Connelly, p. 23).

It was Fandangle (1882), the nineteenth-century antiquarian, who famously wrote about the Greek philosopher Stroumboulopoulos, “Just like the popular culture he analyzed, he is now mostly forgotten” (p. 117).

Notice, however, that at the core of these signal phrases we still have the author and the verb. In all such cases we can use a comma between the signal phrase and the quotation.

Checklist for the short expression:

  • Does your signal phrase include at least a subject and a verb (e.g., He suggested?)
  • Does your signal phrase end with a comma?
  • If your quotation started at the beginning of a sentence in your source, have you kept the capital?
  • Is the quotation a complete sentence?
  • Have you put the appropriate closing punctuation after the parentheses (e.g., a period) rather than at the end of the quotation?

The formal introduction

Next we have a more stately way to introduce quotations. The formal introduction consists of an independent clause that typically makes a claim about the quotation that follows. The quotation then acts as proof or evidence of the signal phrase:

Godfrey Boggart (2011), on the other hand, claimed that opera is a dead art form: “While classic operas like Carmen or The Magic Flute are still being performed, most new operas receive little public attention and are in any case overshadowed by musicals” (p. 49).

Note that the formal introduction does not need to have a verb of expression (writes, believes, argues, etc.). It just needs to be a complete sentence that allows us to make sense of the quotation.

In addition, just as with the short expression, the quotation is usually a complete sentence too. The one exception is if the quotation is an appositive phrase:

To describe the reasoning of toddlers, child psychologist Martin Frost (2015) coined a humorous portmanteau word: “toddlerlogical” (p. 205).

If you find this an awkward construction, then just use the next method of integrating quotations: the run-in quotation.

Checklist to the formal introduction:

  • Are both the quotation and your introduction complete sentences? (exception: the quotation is an appositive noun)
  • Does your quotation start with a capital?
  • Does your introductory phrase end with a colon?

The run-in quotation

Often you can combine your signal phrase with the quotation to form one complete sentence. In that case you don’t need any punctuation in between. You will have to be selective about which words you quote, as the transition needs to be seamless.

The transept “first became popular in Romanesque architecture, and it gave the basilica the appearance of a Latin cross” (Chevet, 2018, p. 5).

Buchanan (2016) contended that “despite being the longest ice age, the Huronian era remains understudied” (p. 3).

Notice that the signal phrase may include the author and a verb of expression, but neither is essential. The key is that the signal phrase and the quotation need to be combined to form a complete sentence.

So there you have it: if you pick one of the three signal phrases you should have no trouble introducing your quotations.

Checklist for the run-in quotation:

  • Do your words combine with the quotation to form a complete sentence?
  • Have you left out all punctuation before the quotation?

Minor variants

Occasionally you may come across a quotation that has no signal phrase. It’s just sitting there, all by itself in the middle of a paragraph. Kind of sad really, as the reader may have no idea what to make of it. Our advice is to play it safe and always provide a signal phrase.

A more acceptable variant is where the order is flipped around, and the signal phrase comes afterwards:

“The high costs of drugs are as much an effect of government intervention as a by-product of free market capitalism,” wrote economist Santana (2017, p. 19).

In such cases the signal phrase is usually a short expression (see above). Note too how the date and page number are in the same parentheses and come directly after the author, not after the quotation.

You can even place the signal phrase in the middle if you like:

“The high costs of drugs,” wrote economist Santana (2017, p. 19), “are as much an effect of government intervention as a by-product of free market capitalism.”

This way of integrating the quotation (placing the signal phrase later in the sentence) is of course much more common when the words are spoken rather than written down:

“I will shoot anyone who thinks gun control is unnecessary,” shouted Ella Pringle, at a rally in Utah.

Another acceptable variant is to introduce the quotation with a short prepositional phrase:

According to Virgil Cain (2014), “Japanese gymnasts have managed to improve their elasticity by eating copious amounts of calamari” (p. 44).

Just make sure your signal phrase and the quotation form a complete sentence.

While you’re free to experiment, in academic prose it’s best to place your signal phrase before the quotation. Otherwise your reader won’t immediately know what to make of the quotation and has to wait for an explanation.

Continuing After the quotation.

You might be asking yourself, do I need to end every sentence right after the quotation? Can I extend the sentence?

Yes you can.

The only caution is that continuing after the quotation is best done when your signal phrase runs right into the quotation (see above) and when the quotation is relatively short. Here is an example:

Odysseus was “the man of twists and turns” (1.1), an apt description of both his character and his wanderings coming home from Troy.

This is also a great way to string together a number of shorter quotations:

Matilda Anderson (2016), in a recent address to the Anthropophagy Society, argued for a “redefinition of cannibalism” so that the restaurant industry “might have a new source of protein” (pp. 1, 5).

If you feel uncomfortable about extending your sentence after the quotation, then just use a period and start a new sentence. Don’t fudge it by adding semi-colons.

Checklist for continuing on after the quotation:

  • Do your words combine with the quotation(s) to form a complete sentence?
  • Have you left out all punctuation before the quotation?
  • Have you put the parentheses immediately after each quotation?
  • Have you put punctuation after the parentheses as appropriate?

Conclusion

Now that know how to introduce a quotation with a signal phrase, check out part 2 of our guide on quoting to learn about all those finicky exceptions! Don’t worry though–with a bit of practice you’ll master the rules soon enough.

For more information about the APA guidelines for integrating quotations, see especially sections 8.25-8.36 of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).

If you would like to print a version of this page, please download our handy Guide to Integrating Quotations Using the APA Style Rules

Integrating Quotations | Part 2 (APA)

Introduction

Once you’re familiar with how to introduce a quotation using a signal phrase, you’re ready to learn the more advanced rules on this page. You don’t have to memorize every rule, but try get a general sense of things and then consult specific sections when you have questions.

Additional Rules

Block Quotations

If your quotation consists of 40 words or more, you need to set it off as a block quotation.

In a block quotation, almost all the regular rules for quoting are inverted or changed. There are no quotation marks, the entire quotation is indented one tab space, and the final punctuation comes before the citation, and not after:

According to Dubrovnick (2011), many students taking psychology are looking for answers to the most fundamental questions of life:

For many students, psychology functions a bit like religious studies. While on the surface students are hoping to discover scientific explanations for the workings of the mind, secretly many are longing to make sense of a world in which spirituality is a fraught concept. These students hope that psychology will fill the void, that their psych prof will teach them what to believe. They couldn’t be further from the truth. (p. 45).

Here’s another way to cite the same information:

Many students taking psychology are looking for answers to the most fundamental questions of life:

For many students, psychology functions a bit like religious studies. While on the surface students are hoping to discover scientific explanations for the workings of the mind, secretly many are longing to make sense of a world in which spirituality is a fraught concept. These students hope that psychology will fill the void, that their psych prof will teach them what to believe. They couldn’t be further from the truth. (Dubrovnick, 2011, p. 45).

Do note that these examples use line spacing that’s more common online. In your essay you should double space all text, leaving no extra spaces between your block quotation and your own text.

Most block quotations are introduced by a formal introduction. The reason is that if you’re quoting a significant amount of text, you need to give it a fairly detailed introduction. Otherwise the reader may have a hard time making sense of the quotation.

In particular, you should avoid using a run-in signal phrase or continuing your sentence after the quotation, even though you will often see these things in older academic texts.

Finally, after the block quotation there is no need to indent your next sentence. Usually you will want to continue with your paragraph and explain the significance of the quotation.

Adding Emphasis

It may happen that you want to emphasize something in a quotation. To do so, italicize the words in question, and then insert (immediately afterwards) the words “emphasis added” in square brackets:

Churchill apparently joked, “Ending a sentence with a preposition is something up with which I will not put [emphasis added].”

If you’re also citing a source, add it at the end as usual:

Birnwick and Flintstone (2009) noted that “most of the penguins who watched Madagascar or Happy Feet showed little reaction [emphasis added] to scenes that involved penguins dancing” (p. 95).

Most of the time, though, you don’t need to add any emphasis. Assume that your reader is smart enough to figure out what’s significant about the quotation.

Ellipses

Sometimes when you quote you may want to skip part of the quotation.

To indicate the omission of words, phrases, or entire lines, you must use an ellipsis (plural ellipses), which is just a fancy word for three spaced periods. Here’s an example:

 Winchester studied the 1500 meter race in Oslo in 1981, and argued that “people love to see the pacemaker succeed … against all odds” (2015, p. 46).

Be careful that when you use an ellipses the grammar and meaning of the quoted passage still make sense.

Also, you do not have to add ellipsis marks at the beginning or end of a quotation. We know that the quoted text has been cut out of a larger passage. The only exception is if your source already contains an ellipsis.

If you end one sentence before the ellipsis, and start a new one afterwards, then you will end up with four spaced periods (one regular period and three for the ellipsis). Here is an example:

Computer programmers “read on average one book per year. . . . They get most of their knowledge from watching Youtube videos” (Smith & Smith, 2016, para. 8).

Square Brackets

You can edit quotations by inserting your own words in square brackets.  Here are some areas where this is useful:

1. When you want to clarify or explain something in the original passage

A recent study by Williams and Jones (2017) found that “even when participants knew that a name brand item was of the same quality or worse [than similar non-brand products], such knowledge did not significantly affect purchasing behaviour” (p. 14).

2. When you want to insert some words to make the grammar work:

Sniggle and Popper claimed that the story of Sleeping Beauty “provide[s] a powerful analogy to a person in a coma” (2016, p. 33).

Do note, however, that in APA style you do not have to use square brackets to change the first letter of a quotation from lowercase to uppercase, or vice versa.

3. If there’s a mistake in the quotation (let’s say a spelling error), you can insert [sic] behind it to indicate that the mistake belongs to the original author of the quotation:

According to Rottweiler, “Carl Jang’s [sic] theory of the anima and animus can be explained by means of the concept of yin and yang” (2017, p. 44).

In these instances you can avoid coming across as pedantic by rewriting slightly:

Rottweiler argued that Carl Jung’s use of the terms anima and animus “can be explained by means of the concept of yin and yang” (2017, p. 44).

In other words, try to minimize the use of square brackets.

Quotes within Quotes

A quote within a quote is placed between single quotation marks:

My friend Natasha told me about a conversation she had with Nibaa after their American lit class: “The other day, Nibaa said, ‘I don’t understand why Moby-Dick is a classic. Much of it reads like a manual on how to run a ship'” (N. Smith, personal communication, August 2, 2019).

In the unusual event that you’re dealing with a quote within a quote within a quote, you would revert back to double quotation marks.

If you’re not quoting anything more than the entire quote within a quote, then just use double quotation marks:

Natasha told me what her friend Nibaa had to say about Moby-Dick: “I don’t understand why Moby-Dick is a classic. Much of it reads like a manual on how to run a ship” ((N. Smith, personal communication, August 2, 2019).

Finally, when you apply these rules to a block quotation, remember that a block quotation doesn’t have any quotation marks around it, so any internal quotation can be set off by double quotation marks.

Paraphrasing

A paraphrase is when you sum up a passage in your own words and provide an appropriate citation. The APA style actually recommends that most of your citations should be paraphrases; direct quotations are normally reserved for  definitions, for capturing the author’s specific wording, or for interacting with a particular passage.

Let’s say you want to paraphrase the following passage (found online on Adler University’s website):

Perhaps Adler’s most influential concept – and the one that drives Adler University today – is that of social interest. Not to be confused as another form of extraversion, social interest should be viewed as an individual’s personal interest in furthering the welfare of others. Collaborating and cooperating with one another as individuals and communities can progress to benefit society as a whole.

Here’s how you might paraphrase part of this passage:

Alfred Adler’s most important contribution was his emphasis on a person’s social interest (“Adler,” n.d., para. 10).

Be careful that you don’t use entire phrases from the original text. This is how not to do it:

Adler’s concept of social interest is not another form of extraversion, but refers to a person’s interest in further other people’s welfare (“Adler,” n.d., para. 10).

When too many specific words or phrases are copied directly from the original passage, you may be guilty of plagiarism, even when you have cited your source.

To avoid any suggestion of unscrupulous copying, be sure also to cite a page or paragraph number. While this is less essential for APA style than for, let’s say, MLA style, it is nevertheless a good practice.

Final Advice

It’s always important to remember why you are using quotations in the first place. An essay is not just a patchwork of quotations. Think of yourself more as a curator at a museum. You get to put on a show and tell a story. You organize the spaces and write the captions. In the same way you need to help the reader make sense of the ideas of others.

So don’t let the quotations swamp your own analysis. Introduce every quotation carefully and be sure to explain, interpret, and apply quotations before you move on with your argument.

For more information about the APA guidelines for integrating quotations, see especially sections 8.25-8.36 of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).

Hanging Indentation

Introduction

A number of citation styles require the use of hanging indentation for citing sources at the end of a research paper or book. Here’s the quick explanation of how to add hanging indentation in MS Word.

What It Looks Like

Hanging indentation means that for every entry in your final bibliography, you indent each line after the first one tab space. Here’s an example of an MLA Works Cited Page with hanging indentation:

Now, you can of course just press Tab for every entry, but that’s laborious and MS Word will likely mess up your spacing if you go that route. There’s a much quicker way to achieve hanging indentation …

How To Add Hanging Indentation

Adding hanging indentation in MS Word is super easy. Just highlight your text and press Ctrl + T. That’s it!

Alternatively, you can take a more circuitous route and go to Home > Paragraph (click the little symbol to the right) > Special > Hanging Indentation.

If you take the latter route, you will be able to adjust the spacing options at the same time. For more details, check out the video above.

Publication Information

Introduction

The last part of a citation is the publication information. What information you provide depends on the type of source and what’s available. Here we review the most common options.

Print Sources

Periodicals

For journal articles, provide the periodical title, the volume, the issue number (if available), and the page range:

Kappa, A. B., Middlington, E. & Mooney, P. R. (2016). The non-uniformity of heterogeneous co-ed frat houses. Social Architectonics, 12(4), 99-108.

Here are a few tips:

  • Periodical titles are capitalized using title case.
  • You don’t need to abbreviate periodical titles (unless they already were in your source).
  • The volume number is italicized. The issue number goes in parentheses and is followed by a comma.
  • The page range shows the first and last page number. If the page numbers are discontinuous, use a comma (e.g., 22-33, 58-62).

Books

For books and reports, you no longer have to provide the city of publication. Only the publisher needs to be listed:

Youngblood, A. (1999). Addicted to Facebook and fake news: Studies in gerontology. We The North Press.

Note the following:

  • You can shorten the publisher’s name by corporate abbreviations such as Ltd, and Inc. You should, however, retain Books and Press.
  • If the author and the publisher are the same, leave out the publisher.

Electronic Sources

DOI

For online sources, it’s customary to add a link that allows the reader to retrieve the source.

The default link is a DOI, or Digital Object Identifier:

Rush, N. M., Quick, C. F., & Scamper, A. (2016). The handwriting of psychology students analyzed through the notation of the ampersand in final exams. The Psychic Calligraphist, 22(1), 1-18, https://doi.org/10.1241/1487.983cbb

Please see our page on DOIs for a more detailed explanation of how to cite a DOI correctly.

URL

If no DOI is available, you can provide a URL:

Carbuncle, R. D. (2015, February 2). How to fake a fake smile. The Chicago Tribunal. https://www.chicagotribunal.com/fake-url

You do not have to add “Retrieved from” or “Accessed from” before the URL.

Before you hand in your essay, double check that any hyperlinks still work.

For more information about citing publication information, please read pp. 293-301 of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).

APA Essay Format

Introduction

Formatting your essay has gotten a lot easier with the 7th edition of the APA style guide. No longer do students have to provide a running head or an abstract (unless your instructor asks for it). The result is a more streamlined essay format, so that with just a little bit of attention to the details you can be off to the races!

Note: All detailed instructions refer to Microsoft Word. If you’re using a different word processor, you may have to look for an equivalent setting.

The Basics

Essay Components

An APA paper has three parts:

  1. The Title Page
  2. The Essay
  3. The Reference List

If your instructor would like an abstract, you can insert it after the title page. It’s best to separate each section with a page break (Insert > Page Break).

Font

You have some options when it comes to choosing a font. Here are some acceptable choices:

  • Sans-Serif font: Calibri (size 11), Arial (size 11)
  • Serif font: Times New Roman (size 12), Georgia (size 11)

Whichever one you choose, make sure you use it throughout your entire essay. Footnotes are typically in size 10 font, and for captions to tables and figures please use a font size between 8 and 14.

Margins

Since 2007, the default margin for any Word document has been 1 inch all around. Fortunately, APA format has the same requirement. If for some reason you need to fix the margins, go to Page Layout > Margins > Normal.

Spacing

All the text in your essay should be double-spaced. To make this change quickly, first press Ctrl + A to highlight all text and then press Home > Line and Paragraph Spacing (symbol) > 2.0. Make sure you also click on “Remove Space After Paragraph.” There’s no need to provide extra spaces between paragraphs or around headings.

Title Page

Let’s look at the basic layout of an APA title page:

An image showing a sample APA title page

Let’s break down what goes into making a great title page. The first thing you’ll want to do is add a page number in the top right hand corner (Insert > Page Number > Plain #3).

The title of your essay should be about 3-4 double-spaced lines from the top of the page. The text should be centered and in bold font. If your title is quite long, you can split it across two lines (in such cases press Enter after the colon if you’re using a subtitle). Make sure that you capitalize important words, but not prepositions and articles.

Double space all the text on your title page and add an extra space after the title. Then provide your name, the department, course, instructor, and date. Centre all this information and don’t use bold font. The date can be formatted in different ways, but the preference is to spell out the month in full.

If you have co-written an essay, list both authors on the same line, separated by “and.” For 3+ authors, separate the names with a comma and add “and” before the final name.

Abstract

For student papers, the abstract (max: 250 words) is entirely optional. However, if your instructor does require a summary of your paper, then place the abstract on its own page, right after the title page. Centre the word “Abstract” in bold font and left-align the actual summary. Use a single paragraph and don’t indent the first line.

Essay Start Page

Your essay really begins on the third page. Your title should be in bold font, centered, with key words capitalized:

Note too that (unlike in the abstract) the first line of each paragraph is indented one tab space.

References List

Finally, don’t forget to cite your sources:

For more details, please visit our page on formatting the reference list.

Section Headings

APA papers are often divided into sections. If you’d like to organize your material with headings, you can choose from a number of different headings. Start by using first level headings and use the others for sub-headings:

First Level Heading (Bold, Centered)

Second Level Heading (Bold, Left Aligned)

Third Level Heading (Bold Italic, Left Aligned)

Fourth Level Heading (Bold, Indented, Ending with a Period).

Fifth Level Heading (Bold Italic, Indented, Ending with a Period).

As you can see, you don’t have to use some complex numbering system (e.g., 3.2.1b) to organize your ideas. The formatting of the heading does the trick.

Finally, don’t add a sub-heading (e.g., Introduction) between the essay title and the first paragraph. Also, don’t forget to capitalize important words in each heading (what’s called title case).

APA Essay Template

Make your life a little easier by downloading one of our APA templates. Enjoy!

APA Essay Template (Without Abstract or Running Head)

APA Essay Template (With Optional Running Head and Abstract)

Titles

Introduction

When you list your sources in an APA paper, the third part of an entry is usually the title. Here we review the basic rules for citing titles in your reference list.

Rules for Titles

Capitalization

Typically, only the first word of a title is capitalized:

Postprandial mood swings in adults who eat their lunch before 11 o’clock.

Exceptions are proper names and the first word of a subtitle:

Studies in obsessive compulsive disorder: The case of the Oxford comma.

As you can tell, you don’t need to use quotation marks for titles.

Italics

Use italics for titles of standalone works (e.g., books, websites) and for the names of periodicals:

Social hierarchy and towel whipping during the middle school years. (book)

Journal of Interracial Dating (periodical)

Don’t use italics when a work is part of a longer work (as with an article published in a periodical).

Additional Information

If your source contains extra information that relates to your title (edition, number, etc.), you can add it in parentheses:

Famous Freudian slips: The complete anals (Vols. 1-11).

Frank conversations with Frank (3rd ed., Vol. 2).

Frequency of calf muscle spasms in left handed adolescent swimmers (Publication No. Gr8-WRK-U2).

No Title

If your source lacks a title, you can substitute a description in square brackets:

[Photograph of latrinalia at Leicester train station].

For comments and social media posts that lack a title, it is customary to provide the first 20 words of the text.

Description of the Source

Sometimes it may be helpful to add a brief description of the source. This is especially the case for unusual sources:

Colonel Brandon’s flannel waistcoat [DVD]

Capitalize only the first word in square brackets. Here are some sample descriptions:

[Abstract]

[Audiobook]

[CD]

[Conference session]

[DVD]

[Data set]

[Database record]

[Unpublished doctoral dissertation]

[Symposium]

[TV series]

[Song]

[Audio podcast]

[Mobile App]

[Comment on the article, “Five ways to rejuvenate your relationship”]

For more information about citing titles, please see pp. 291-93 of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Edition (7th ed.).

Introduction

Introduction

Welcome to our introduction to the APA style guide. APA stands for the American Psychological Association, a body that provides guidelines for a number of disciplines, particularly those in the social sciences. In this guide we explain the essential APA rules for citing sources and formatting your paper. For the official (and complete) style guide, you’ll have to buy the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).

Common Features

APA, like MLA, uses in-text citation, by which we mean that sources are cited in the body of the text, as opposed to in footnotes or end notes. Unlike MLA, APA puts more emphasis on the date of publication. Often it is enough to cite the author’s last name and the date:

Bobbejaan (1999) argued …

… melancholy (Hrapniuk, Irate, & Wyrd, 2017).

This is sufficient if you’re referring to the general argument of the source you’re citing. On the other hand, if you’re quoting or drawing attention to a specific passage, you will also need to provide a page number:

(Smith, 2008, p. 11).

In APA style, the final bibliography is called a reference list. Again, the date of publication receives more emphasis, and is placed close to the start of each entry:

Frenetick, J. (2014). The psychology of trout tickling. LNG Press.

Clearly, APA papers value research that is current and up to date.

Conclusion

APA style can seem overwhelming, since it covers not only citation and formatting rules, but also gives advice on how to do research properly. Our focus is on the former. As you take courses in the social sciences, you will learn how to do everything from statistical analysis to conducting experiments. Don’t feel you need to know everything at once–simply consult whatever sections are relevant to you now.

In-Text Citation: Basic Rules

Introduction

When you cite your sources in the text of your essay (what is commonly called in-text citation), you normally need to give just enough information so your reader can easily find the source in your final list of references. As with MLA style, citations are included in the text and not in the footnotes, though you are of course allowed to add footnotes for clarification and extra information.

There are a few sources that can be cited only in the text, and not in the reference list:

  • Personal communications that are not easily accessible
  • General references to websites, journals, apps, etc.
  • Quotations from research participants
  • Epigraphs

Core Principles

APA in-text citations focus on the author and the date of publication. If you’re quoting (rather than paraphrasing) you should also add the page number.

Here are a few sample in-text citations using the same source:

Jones (2017) argues that children who are unable to blow bubbles with their bubble gum are more likely to experience bouts of depression during adolescence.

In 2017, Jones argued that children who are unable to blow bubbles with their bubble gum are more likely to experience bouts of depression during adolescence.

Children who are unable to blow bubbles with their bubble gum are more likely to experience bouts of depression during adolescence (Jones, 2017).

For children unable to blow bubbles with their bubble gum, the results can be tragic: “Around 16% suffer from depression in their teenage years” (Jones, 2017, p. 44).

The first two examples are called narrative citations because they are part of the sentence itself. The last two examples are parenthetical citations: they enclose all the information in a final set of parentheses.

If you’re familiar with a different method of citation, watch out for the following features of APA style:

  • Authors are cited by last name only, though in the final list of references, initials may also be given.
  • All elements within parentheses are separated by commas.
  • Page numbers are introduced with a “p.” or “pp.”
  • Suffixes (e.g., Jr.) are omitted.

You will also note that APA essays frequently engage with the overall argument of a source, rather than some small detail or snippet. That is why often only the author and date are given, and no page number is provided. However, page numbers are important for direct quotations and can be helpful when paraphrasing a specific passage in a longer work.

The Ampersand

When citing works with multiple authors, you should join the names with “and” in the text of your essay, and with an ampersand (&) in parentheses:

Urchin, Urnwood, Unction, and Creep (2007)

(Urchin, Urnwood, Unction, & Creep 2007)

No Date of Publication

Should it happen that your source lacks a date or has not been published yet, then you can add “n.d” or “in press”:

(Crikey, n.d.)

(Flaky, in press)

Repeated Citations

When you use the same source multiple times in the same paragraph, you don’t necessarily need to cite it in every sentence. For example, when paraphrasing a source, make sure it is cited in the first sentence. Subsequently, when naming the source in the course of a sentence (as opposed to in parentheses), you can omit the date. If you introduce a different source or start a new paragraph, you’ll have to cite your original source in full again:

Fleaburg (2005) argued that giving more expensive roses on Valentine’s Day provided a greater happiness quotient than during the rest of the year. Part of the reason appears to be that the added cost is a marker of investment in the relationship. However, Fleaburg points out that once the cost reaches a certain threshold (typically around three times the normal price), the emotional returns start to dwindle, and may even be reversed should the parties be struggling financially or be of Dutch heritage. Similar research by Tillbury (2009) and Muffin (2018) confirms these findings. Nevertheless, it has been pointed out that more research needs to be done to take into account the effect of Costco wholesale flower prices (Fleaburg, 2005).

Numbers of Authors

One Author

When citing a single author, drop any suffixes (e.g., Jr.), and provide both the author’s name and the date:

Obermaus (2016) determined that psychotic taxi drivers are less likely to cause accidents.

Psychotic taxi drivers are less likely to cause accidents (Obermaus, 2016).

As mentioned above, if you’ve mentioned the author’s name outside of parentheses, then you can omit the date the next time you mention the name outside of parentheses (and in the same paragraph):

Obermaus (2016) determined that psychotic taxi drivers are less likely to cause accidents. Still, Obermaus also found that psychotic taxi drivers are more prone to road rage during traffic jams.

However, if you are citing multiple sources, or if the name is in parentheses, then make sure you provide both the name and the date in your next citation. This rule also applies if you’re citing more than one author.

Two Authors

For a single work by two authors, provide both names in every citation:

Frock and Flinck (1999) found that among some of the Bogo tribes, ritualized courtships consisted of elaborate handstands and cartwheels.

Among some of the Bogo tribes, ritualized courtships consisted of elaborate handstands and cartwheels (Frock & Flinck, 1999).

Note the use of the ampersand when names are joined in parentheses.

Three or More Authors

Anytime you’re citing a source by three or more authors, list just the first name followed by the Latin abbreviation et al. (and others):

Pointdexter et al. (2011) found …

(Pointdexter et al., 2011)

Notice that the abbreviation is not italicized.

If the shortened citation and date are the same as for another publication (that shares a similar group of authors), cite as many authors as necessary to distinguish the two sources. For instance, let’s say you want to shorten the following lists of authors:

(Smiley, Gaylord, Sanguin, & Giggles, 2009)

(Smiley, Stephens, Smith, & Stitch, 2009)

You would shorten as follows:

(Smiley, Gaylord, et al., 2009)

(Smiley, Stephens, et al., 2009)

If the last author is the only one that’s different, then just write out all the names.

Groups

Some sources are authored by groups (e.g., associations, societies, institutions). Spell them out fully the first time. If you intend to shorten them later, add the abbreviation in the parentheses:

The Pathological Liars Study Group (PLSG, 2010) found that …

(Pathological Liars Study Group [PLSG], 2010)

Notice the use of square brackets in the second example to avoid confusion between different sets of parentheses. After the first citation, you can provide just the abbreviated form:

The PLSG (2010) argued …

Group names should be spelled out fully in your reference list.

Conclusion

Now that you’ve learned the author-date system, check out also our other page on in-text citation, which covers some more unusual types of citations. 

For more information about APA in-text citation, see chapter 8 of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).

In-Text Citation: Additional Rules

Introduction

We have covered the basics of in-text citation elsewhere. This page details some unusual cases and exceptions.

Additional Rules

Same Last Name

If you’re citing authors who share a last name, provide the first author’s initials in each citation:

The problem has been discussed by B. Frank (1992) and I. M. Frank (2008).

Bush, Goldstein, & Frank (1995) argue …

Notice that in the second example Frank is not the first author listed, so there is no need to add initials. The reader can check the reference list to find out which Frank is meant.

If two co-authors share a last name, then you don’t have to use initials:

(Jones & Jones, 2020)

No Author

If a source has no author, provide a short version of the title (or whatever else is the first information in the reference list):

(“Wimpy Kids,” 2005)

(Gender Euphoria, 2011)

If the title lacks italics in the reference list, then place it between quotation marks. Capitalize important words in the title.

In the rare instance where a work is actually signed “Anonymous,” you can use that as the name:

(Anonymous, 2015)

Multiple Works

If you’re citing multiple works in the course of a sentence (and not in the final parentheses), then you can use any order you want:

Wiener (2012), Mayer (2009), and Franks (2001) all argued that the name Hotdog Syndrome might sound catchy, but would never pass muster as an official diagnosis.

By contrast, when citing multiple works in final parentheses, organize them alphabetically by the name of the first contributor. Use semi-colons to separate the sources:

The size of a handbag contributes less to social status than the colour and materials (Johansen, 2009; Prude & Clasp, 2012).

If an item is in press, list it last:

(Vogelsang, 2010; Beard, in press)

When citing multiple works by the same author(s), give only the date for each item after the first:

(Jones, 2001, 2008, 2014; Peters, 2009)

If two or more dates are the same, use letters (a, b, c…) to distinguish them:

(Young, 2005a, 2005b; Zielinski, 2003)

Finally, if you want to emphasize one of your sources, you can place it first and introduce the other sources with a phrase such as see also:

(Ker, 2015; see also Bragg, 2016; Loreman et al., 2007)

In this example, Ker’s study is given priority (breaking the rule about alphabetization), and the other sources are treated as of secondary importance.

Multiple Dates of Publication

Sometimes you might want to provide two dates of publication. This is useful for reprints, translations, and so on. Separate the dates with a slash:

(Pavlov, 1933/2009)

Adler (1929/2015)

Second Hand Information

If one of your sources cites another source, one that you cannot access yourself, then you can use the phrase “as cited in”:

Her last will and testament stated that “the black sheep will get nothing” (as cited in Smith, 2005).

The ascent of Mount Sinister took four weeks and claimed the lives of two mountaineers (Sharp, 1999, as cited in Fillmore, 2011).

Use this method only when you can’t look up the original source yourself.

Citing a Part of Source

Quotations are generally cited by page number, but there are other ways cite a specific section of a source. These include tables, paragraphs, chapters, theatrical references, Bible verses, and much more:

(Gibbet, 2008, pp. 23-24)

(Karpati, 2001, Table 3.1)

(Felicity, 2003, paras. 5-6)

(Bronsman, 1962, Chapter 5)

(Newly Revised Still Standard Bible, 2019, Rom. 4:1)

(Shakespeare, 1623/2009, 2.4.12-14)

(Fillmore, 2018, “Methodology” section, para. 2)

When citing a heading or section of a longer work, you can abbreviate the title.

In all such citations, the words page(s) and paragraph(s) are abbreviated, and most other descriptive words are capitalized (though not section).

Personal Communication

Any personal communication that is not accessible to your readers (i.e., is not recoverable) should be cited as follows:

E. G. Sand (personal communication, May 3, 2017)

(B. Sandwich, personal communication, December 22, 2014)

Make sure you provide the person’s initials and give the date in full. This is important because personal communication is not included in the final reference list.

Personal communication can include emails, letters, lectures, text messages, conversations, and so forth. Such sources are only cited in the text of your essay, and not in the reference list.

Citations in Parentheses

If some text in parentheses includes a citation, don’t use an extra set of parentheses to set it off:

Incorrect: (see Angstfreund (2008), Chapter 5, for a detailed discussion)

Correct: (see Angstfreund, 2008, Chapter 5, for a detailed discussion)

In such cases, commas will do.

For more information about APA in-text citation, please see chapter 8 of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).

Formatting the Reference List

Introduction

The final bibliography in an APA paper is called a reference list. The reference list includes only those sources that have been cited in the text and that support the argument. Background studies and works of general interest are not included.

In addition, sources cited in the reference list should be recoverable. The reader should be able to locate and access them. For that reason, personal documents (e.g., emails, letters) that are not publicly accessible should be cited only in the body of your essay, and not in the reference list.

On this page we cover basic formatting rules, how to alphabetize entries, and some common abbreviations you can use when citing your sources.

Basic Formatting

Start your reference list on a separate page.

Write “References” (centered and bold) and then list your sources in alphabetical order. Double space all text and use hanging indentation to organize entries:

An image showing a sample APA reference list with two entries

Alphabetizing Entries

Entries are generally organized alphabetically, by surname:

Allworth, A.

Basketcase, B.

Clause, S.

However, here are some special cases to watch out for …

Nothing Precedes Something

The APA manual explains that in alphabetizing, “nothing precedes something” (303). Take the following names:

Crutch, X. A.

Crutchfield, B. P.

Crutchy, C. N.

In this example, all three surnames start with “Crutch,” but after that the first surname has “nothing” (ignoring the initials) and so it comes first.

Same Author

1. If you’re citing multiple works by the same author, organize them by year of publication:

Duncecap, C. V. (n.d.)

Duncecap, C. V. (2015).

Duncecap, C. V. (2017).

The same rule applies for citing multiple authors:

Billups, C., & Barkley, C. (2014).

Billups, C., & Barkley, C. (2016).

2. If the author and the year are both the same, alphabetize by title and add a letter behind each date:

Whitecraft, B. (2017a). A brief history of briefs.

Whitecraft, B. (2017b). The sociology of underwear.

Articles (a, an, the) are ignored for the purpose of alphabetizing.

3. If the same author has published individually and with others, always place the individual publication first:

Bittern, S. (2012).

Bittern, S., & Scotch, T. (2002).

This assumes, of course, that both entries start with the same surname.

No Author

Use the name “Anonymous” only if that’s how the work is signed. Otherwise, if the author’s name is missing, alphabetize by title (ignoring The, An, A).

Group Names

Spell out group names, and alphabetize accordingly:

Federal Bureau of Investigation, Mafia Research Division. (2015).

Sicilian Mob Studies Association. (2014).

Society for the Study of Godfathers. (2011).

Notice that a subdivision (e.g., Mafia Research Division) is mentioned after its parent body. However, you can often leave out the parent body (here the Federal Bureau of Investigation) and cite it later in the entry as the publisher.

If the title page of your source lists both individual authors and a group name, then provide the individual names for the author and save the group name for later in the entry.

Abbreviations

Finally, here are some abbreviations you can use in your reference list:

ed. (edition)

Rev. ed. (revised edition)

2nd ed. (second edition, etc.)

Ed. (Editor)

Eds. (Editors)

p. (page)

pp. (pages)

Vol. (Volume)

Vols. (Volumes)

No. (Number)

n.d. (no date)

Pt. (Part)

Suppl. (Supplement)

Trans. (Translator or Translators)

For more information about how to format and organize your reference list, please see chapter 9 of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).

The Parts of an Entry

Introduction

The final bibliography in an APA paper is called a reference list. The reference list includes only those sources that have been cited in the text and that support the argument. Background studies and works of general interest are not included.

In addition, sources cited in the reference list should be recoverable. The reader should be able to locate and access them. For that reason, personal documents (e.g., emails, letters) that are not publicly accessible should be cited only in the body of your essay, and not in the reference list.

Component Parts

Every entry in the reference list has four parts:

Author | Year of Publication | Title | Publishing Info

To learn more about each part of an entry (as well as how to format the entire reference list), please consult the following pages:

Authors and Editors

Publication Date

Titles

Publication Information

Digital Object Identifiers

 

Authors and Editors

Introduction

The author can be anything from a single person to a group or organization. There are many types of authors. Examples include a speaker at a TED talk, the editor of a book, a singer, the writer of an article, or someone who comments on a web page.

This page explains how to cite authors and editors as part of your APA reference list.

Authors

Inverted Names

Most of the time you’ll first want to give an author’s surname, followed by initials:

Jones, A. B. (2001).

If the first name is hyphenated (e.g., Mary-Jo), use both a period and a hyphen (e.g., M.-J.). In general, remove titles (e.g., Dean, President, etc.), but do add suffixes (e.g., Jr.).

Ampersand

If you’re citing two or more authors, join the last two names together with an ampersand (&):

Jones, A. B., Smith, C. D., & Axelrod, D. T. (2009).

When using an ampersand between two group names, don’t add a comma:

Fun in the Sun Conference & The Hawaiian Epicurean Society.

However, do provide commas with three or more group authors.

Twenty-One or More Authors

When citing a source with 21 or more authors, delete every name after the 19th and before the final one. Use three spaced periods to indicate the omission:

Seacrest, B. T., Reynolds, A. T., Etheridge, L., Cruise, T., Merkel, A., Bergkamp, N., Cornflake, X., Bobbejaan, I., Watson, E., Ampersand, N., Doubletake, C. B., Corny, W., Snowflake, Y., Naughty, T., Funfner, P., Zijlstra, K., Allegro, U., Andante, E., Presto, J. . . . Ratzinger, W. (2015).

Same Name

If authors share the same last name and initial(s), you can add the full first name in brackets:

Williams, B. [Brent]. (1999).

Williams, B. [Bryan]. (2004).

Be sure also to spell out each initial in the text of your essay (e.g., Brent Williams, 1999).

Group Author

Don’t abbreviate the names of group authors:

Peruvian Pavlovians Society. (2009).

Hawaiian Littoral Study Group. (2011).

If you list the group name as author, don’t include it again later in the source section of the entry.

No Author

If a source has no author, place the title first:

Dit is niet een echte titel. (2006).

Only if the work is clearly signed “Anonymous” can you use this designation as the author.

Editors

Editor as Author

When citing one or more editors in the author position, invert the names and add (Ed.). or (Eds.).

Brown, A. T. (Ed.). (2011).

Strand, J. S., & Johnson, C. N. (Eds.). (2016).

Editor and Author

If the source has an author, and the editor’s name comes later in the entry, don’t invert the editor’s name:

Templeton, R. (2009). The destructive work habits of slobs (T. V. Time, Ed.; 2nd ed.). Billabong University Press.

Entry in Edited Volume

If the source is a chapter or entry in an edited volume, use the word In before the editor’s name:

Prune, B., & Bucket, C. J. (2017). Are splash parks a waste of water? In N. Green, & B. B. Gun (Eds.), Climate change and urban planning (pp. 14-19). Spain: Solar.

For more information about how to format the author element, please see chapter 9 (especially pp. 285-89) of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).

Publication Date

Introduction

If you have questions about how to cite the date of a publication following the APA guidelines (7th ed.), please consult the examples below.

Variants

Year of Publication

The default option is to give the year of publication.

Crabby, M., & Grumby, Z. (Eds.). (2011). The anxiety of influence: Why the fear of plagiarism haunts academics. Journal of Insipidity, 24(1), 99-111.

Note the final period after the parentheses.

Month and Day

For frequent publications such as magazines and newspapers, you can give the year, month, and day (if known):

Slinky, B. (2014, May 7). The elephant in the room, or how to tranquilize people with unusually large egos. Popular Anesthetist, 108(4), 33-35.

In some cases you may instead provide the season:

(2015, Spring)

No Date

Use the abbreviation “n.d.” to indicate if a source does not have a date:

Smith, A. (n.d.). Adhocracy. In Dictionary of economic jargon. Retrieved September 19, 2019, from https://www.doej.com/business/adhocracy/

Estimated date

Prenderwick, E. (ca. 1972). Peruvian Pavlovians Society constitution. In T. Droolbug (Ed.), Papers of the Peruvian Pavlovians Society (pp. 23-33). University of Lima Press.

Multiple Years

Multi-volume publications are often published over a longer time period. Provide the first and last date of publication:

Sharp, B. (Ed.). (1999-2009). Famous Freudian slips: The complete anals (Vols. 1-11). Lima, Peru: Parapraxis Press.

In Press

If a work has accepted for publication but has not been officially published, write “in press”:

Blunt, R., Bumbles, T. T., & Wink, M. S. (in press). Can emojis adequately capture the emotional states of adolescents? Digital Communication Trends.

In such cases it is likely that there is no URL or DOI to provide.

If a work is still in progress, or has been submitted but not yet accepted, then don’t provide a description for the date. Simply list the year when the work was created.

 

For more information about citing the date of publication, please see pp. 289-91 of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).

Digital Object Identifiers (DOIs)

Introduction

A DOI, or digital object identifier, is an alpha-numeric string that is associated with a particular publication. It is similar to a URL (a uniform resource locator), the web link you see in your browser’s address bar. However, a DOI is more stable and will remain permanently attached to a publication.

The APA guidelines suggest that if a source has a DOI, you should include it in the citation, even if you did not access the source online.

Current Guidelines

The American Psychological Association follows the guidelines for DOIs provided by Crossref, the organization that helps publishers create consistent citation linking. A proper DOI should be in the following format (the letter x being a variable number or letter):

https://doi.org/10.xxxx/xxxxxx

Let’s take a closer look at the component parts of a DOI:

Note that every DOI will include the number 10 at the start of the prefix. The next number is at least four digits long and is associated with the registrant, a particular publisher or organization. The suffix consists of any number of letters and numbers.

When citing an online source with a DOI, add it at the end of your citation:

Wittles, Q. (2011). Freud and the art of doodling. Art and Psychology, 19, 22-33. https://doi.org/10.1091/1598300983

Make the link clickable if your writing is published online. Also, make sure you don’t add a period afterwards, as that may mess up the link.

How to Find a DOI

Most often you will find the DOI at the beginning of the article (look on the first page, above the title or in the header and footer).

If you’re using an academic database, you will also often find the DOI listed in the information for the article. In some cases, it may not be formatted correctly:

In this example, you would need to edit the link to get rid of “dx” and the library extension (“ezproxy.aec.talonline.ca”):

Before: http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.aec.talonline.ca/10.1037/cpp0000189

After: http://doi.org/10.1037/cpp0000189

Note that normally we would use https instead of http.

Older Methods

In the past, DOIs were sometimes formatted differently:

http://dx.doi.org/10.9987/75098acg334

doi:10.9987/75098acg334

If you are citing the same DOI today, you’ll want to use the current format:

https://doi.org/10.9987/75098acg334

Conclusion

If you’re doubtful about the usefulness of DOIs, just take a DOI (not one from this article–they’re mostly made up) and copy it in your browser’s address bar (then press Enter). Alternatively, you can go directly to the DOI resolver at https://www.doi.org/. Knowing the DOI allows you to easily find the text it belongs to.

For more information about DOIs, please consult pp. 298-300 of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).

Periodicals

Introduction

A periodical is a magazine or journal that comes out in regular installments. This page provides a number of examples of how to cite a periodical article. If you can’t find exactly what you’re looking for, try match the closest example or consult the official APA manual.

Basic Format

The basic format for articles is as follows:

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (year of publication). Title of the article. Periodical Title, volume number(issue number), page range, doi.

Here is what that looks like in practice:

Rush, N. M., Quick, C. F., & Scamper, A. (2016). The handwriting of psychology students analyzed through the notation of the ampersand in final exams. The Psychic Calligraphist, 22(1), 1-18, https://doi.org/10.1241/1487.983cbb

Notes:

  • Provide initials for first names.
  • Whenever you cite more than one author, use an ampersand before the final name.
  • Don’t capitalize key words in your title. Only the first word and proper nouns need capitalization.
  • Use italics for the periodical title and volume.
  • Provide the issue number only if each issue starts pagination from page 1.
  • For more information about DOIs, check out our separate page and consult the examples below.
  • Depending on the citation, some details may be altered or omitted.

Variants

Article in Print

An article in print does not need a DOI number:

Kappa, A. B., Middlington, E. & Mooney, P. R. (2016). The non-uniformity of heterogeneous co-ed frat houses. Social Architectonics, 12, 99-108.

Article with DOI

When you add a DOI, make sure you omit the final period.

Wittles, Q. (2011). Freud and the art of doodling. Art and Psychology, 19, 22-33. https://doi.org/10.1091/1598300983

Article with URL

Plump, T. T., & Carrot, C. V. (2012). Quarterly sales of hamburgers and hotdogs in Hamburg and Frankfurt. Journal of Fast Food Economics, 9(3), 88-93. http://ufv.lib/us/12.9.3/sales

More Than Twenty Authors

When citing a source with more than twenty authors, delete every name after nineteenth and before the final one. Use three spaced periods to indicate the omission:

Seacrest, B. T., Reynolds, A. T., Etheridge, L., Cruise, T., Merkel, A., Bergkamp, N., Colon, S., Semi-Colon, B., Comma, N., Dash, Z., Potato, M., Waffle, C., Chocolate, K., Kamp, U., Fifteener, V. Jones, E, Watson, T. Chupkra, M., Klosur, I.,  . . . Ratzinger, W. (2015). Coping with the fears of brain freezes and melting ice-cream. Childlike Psychology, 5(2), 144-89. https://doi.org/10.8733/0988434.56.777

Article In Press

Whipper, T. X., & Knuckleboner, P. C. (in press). Some differences between the British and the Scottish clammy handshake. Journal of Body Language.

Magazine Article

If you’re citing a popular magazine (rather than an academic periodical), you may want to give the month and/or day of publication:

Slinky, B. (2014, May 3). The elephant in the room, or how to tranquilize an unusually obese man. Popular Anesthetist, 108(4), 33-35.

For magazines published online, add a URL.

Newspaper Article

For newspaper articles, provide the day and month, and, where appropriate, cite page numbers by the section of the paper:

Hendrix, K. (2001, November 2). Sociology professor wears pajamas to class. Blue River Gazette, B1, B7-B8.

In this example, the article can be found in section B.

For online newspapers, just replace the section with the URL of the article:

Hendrix, K. (2001, November 2). Sociology professor wears pajamas to class. Blue River Gazette.  https://www.brgazette.com/2001/11/02/sociology-professor-wears-pajamas-to-class

Special Issue or Section

Sometimes a periodical is devoted entirely to a single issue or topic. If you would like to cite the issue as a whole, provide the names of the editors followed by the title of the issue and the designation “special issue”:

Crabby, M., & Grumby, Z. (Eds.). (2011). The anxiety of influence: Why the fear of plagiarism haunts academics [Special Issue]. Journal of Insipidity, 24(1).

If you’re citing just a section of the journal, change the description of the title and add page numbers:

Florist, F., Grist, M. J., & Groanwold, A. B. (Eds.). (2007). Animation and imagination: The dynamics of visualization in early childhood education [Special section]. Studies in Indoctrination, 88, 59-102.

For more information about citing periodicals, please see pp. 316-21 of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).

Books

Introduction

This page will teach you how to cite longer works such as books and reference works, as well as the chapters or entries in them.

Books

Basic Format

Here’s the default format for citing a book:

Author, A. A. (year of publication). Title (translator or editor). Publisher. DOI or URL

And here’s what that might look like in practice:

Youngblood, A. (1999). Addicted to Facebook and fake news: Studies in gerontology (F. Finch, Ed.). We The North Press. https://doi.org/10.4888/3893274

Whitman, W. (2016). An introduction to urinal etiquette. Pissoir Digital. https://doi.org/10.8248/357709ggg0

You can vary the format by replacing the author with an editor or a group. Leave out the DOI or URL if the book doesn’t have one:

Putin, V. (Ed.) (2017). The fate of the pierogi in Russian controlled Ukraine. Black Sea Press.

Now that you know the general format, check out the variations below for other examples.

Audiobook

You only need to indicate that your source is an audio book if that version is different in some way from the regular text (e.g., it is abridged):

Carbuncle, R. D. (2015). How to fake a fake smile (H. Glow, Narr.) [Audiobook]. Colgate Audio. https://www.colgatepubs.com/html.fake/url

Ebook

Here’s how to cite an electronic book that lacks a DOI:

Nibali, B. (2002). A brief history of the little black dress. https://www.blackhistory.org/sartorial/little-black-dress/an335other592fake.url/

Multi-volume Work with Multiple Editors

The following entry includes two editors, an edition, and a specific volume:

Sharp, B., & Klunk, H. (Eds.). (2009). Famous Freudian slips: The complete anals (2nd ed., Vol. 3). Parapraxis Press.

Edition with Author and Editor

Templeton, R. (2009). The destructive work habits of slobs (T. V. Time, Ed.; 2nd ed.). Billabong University Press.

Republished Work

Idler, A., Freude, S., & Dung, C. (1999). Hope I don’t fall in love with you: Problems with patient-therapist transference (B. Stricter, Ed. & Trans.). Golden Gate Press. (Original work published 1928)

Providing the original date of publication is also important for editions of classic works of literature (e.g., Plato, Shakespeare, etc.).

Translated Book

Grettirsdottir, L. (2002). A brief introduction to Icelandic humour (T. Smith, Trans.). Oxbridge University Press.

If the title is in a foreign language, you can add an English translation in square brackets behind it.

Chapters and Entries

Basic Format

Here is the basic format for citing a specific section of a book:

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (year of publication). Title of chapter or entry. In A. Editor, & B. Editor (Eds.), Book Title (pp. xx-xx). Publisher. DOI or URL

And this is what that looks like in practice:

Prune, B., & Bucket, C. J. (2017). Are splash parks a waste of water? In N. Green, & B. B. Gun (Eds.), Climate change and urban planning (pp. 14-19). Solar Press. https://doi.org/10.8338/322209gg3

Now that you know the basic format, let’s look at a few sample variations.

Book Chapter, Reprinted from a Journal Article

Cork, V. (2005). The pedagogy of surprise. In B. P. MacDonald, & E. Sorenson (Eds.), Teaching with Emotion (pp. 89-102). Big Hat Press. (Reprinted from “The pedagogy of surprise,” 2001, Journal of Sentimentality, 4[3], 66-81, https://doi.org/10.1118/323212ff3)

Note that here the issue number of the article is placed in square brackets rather than parentheses.

Online Reference Work

Online works will typically lack page numbers:

Norton, F. (2010). Trauma. In H. Ypnosis (Ed.), The Gobsmack Encyclopedia of Psychology. https://gobsmack.encycl.org/terms/trauma/

Other information that may be missing includes the author, editor, and date:

Adhocracy. (n.d.). In Dictionary of economic jargon. Retrieved January 11, 2019, from https://www.doej.com/business/adhocracy/

When the entry lacks a date, you can provide a retrieval date instead.

For more information about citing books and sections of books, please see pp. 321-29 of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).

Meetings and Presentations

Introduction

When scholars want to share their ideas, they deliver talks, present posters, and discuss their results. This page will help you cite the different types of presentations, using the APA style guide (7th ed.).

Meetings and Presentations

Conference Paper, Poster, Session

If you’re citing a speech, poster, or conference session, use the following format:

Presenter, A. A., & Presenter, B. B. (Year, month and days). Title [Type of Contribution]. Conference Name, Location. DOI or URl.

In practice, we get something like this:

Flokstra, Z., & Flintwitch, I. (2002, September 7-9). The benefits of spool knitting in environmental science classrooms [Poster presentation]. Knitting Scientists Society Congress, Chicago, IL, United States. http://www.kssc.org/congress

Zizek, B. (2011, June 5). Teaching architecture with Lego [Paper presentation]. Annual Conference of the International Lego Pedagogy Group, Boston, MA, United States.

To cite an entire session, just list the contributors as the author and write “Conference sesssion” in square brackets after the title.

Symposium

A symposium is meeting where a number of scholars come together to discuss a particular topic. If they’re polite, they’ll let the chair keep them from droning on too long. You can cite all the contributors or single out specific individuals.

Here’s the basic format:

Contributor, A. A., & Contributor, B. B. (Year, month and days). Title of contribution. In C. C. Chairperson (Chair), Symposium title [Symposium]. Conference Name, Location. DOI or URL

And here’s an example:

Kushner, X., Spicer, K., & Scarface, B. K. (2017, January 19). The economic effect of the Magnitsky Act. In M. Kardashian (Chair), Conference on Russian-American Relations [Symposium]. Itinerant Economists Society Conference, Thredbo, Australia. https://doi.org.10.7444/4738928347f

Proceedings

When select conference presentations are published, they are often bundled together as one document (called the conference proceedings). When you cite a presentation included in such a publication, follow the regular rules for citing an entry or chapter in a book:

Dalek, S., & Whu, Y. (2017). The crazy physics of the EmDrive thruster. In B. S. Gallblather (Ed.), The Future of Interstellar Travel (pp. 35-42). Backwater Press. https://doi.org/10.5166/na35666sa-00

For more information about citing meetings and presentations, please see pp. 332-33 of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).

Theses

Basic Format

Let’s start with the default option for citing an unpublished thesis or dissertation:

Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of dissertation or thesis [Unpublished doctoral thesis or master’s thesis]. Institution.

Here’s what that looks like in practice:

Nyet, D. (2005). Procrastination and dissertation completion times at three Ontario universities (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Toronto.

Variants

Dissertation or Thesis in a Database

Fleming, C. T. (1998). Valentine’s Day and the Macedonian horticultural industry (Publication No. 483294) [Master’s thesis, Saints Cyril and Methodius University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.

Dissertation From the Web

When you’re not using a database, you may want to include a URL and/or archive name:

Obvius, C. (2014). The psychology of common sense (Doctoral dissertation, Donair University). Donair Institutional Repository. https://www.donair.edu/rep/157/thesis/

For more information about citing dissertations, please see pp. 333-34 of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).

Reviews

Introduction

Need to cite a review of a book or film? This page will teach you how, using the APA guidelines (7th ed.)

Citing Reviews

Basic Format

The default format for reviews involves a book review published in a journal:

Reviewer, A. A. (Date of the review’s publication). Review Title [Review of the book Title, by A. A. Author]. Periodical, volume(issue), pages. DOI or URL

Here’s an example:

Rutgers, A. (2010, December 22). I may be Greek, but I’m not narcissistic. [Review of the book The Psychological Make-up of Six European Nations, by E. Pratt]. Psychobabble Magazine, 66(1), 22-23. https://doi.org/10.1919/aff12098855

If the review is of a different medium than a book, change “Review of the book” to whatever description is appropriate (e.g., “Review of the film”). The same goes for the author of the material under review. For example, you might replace the author of the book (E. Pratt in our example) with the director (e.g., “by B. Alonso, Dir.).

Variant

As an example of the changes you can make to the basic format, here is a film review published in a newspaper:

Cringeworthy, E. (2014). Nowhere Close. [Review of the film The Bridge to Somewhere, by F. Synopsis, Dir.]. The Millenial Times  https://www.mtimes.com/38fJ2

For more information about citing reviews, please see pp. 234-35 of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).

Data Sets and Software

Introduction

If you’re using a data set or a specialized kind of software or measurement tool, you should cite it in your reference list.

Of course you don’t have to cite common types of software such as Microsoft Word or Adobe Photoshop, nor do you have to account for the use of universal programming languages (e.g., Java).

Data Set

Here is the basic format:

Author, A. A. (Year). Title of data set (Version number) [Data set]. Publisher or Source. DOI or URL.

Notes:

  • You can leave out the version number.
  • If the information is still being updated, you can provide a retrieval date and URL (e.g., Retrieved May 7, 2017, from URL).
  • You can change the description in square brackets (e.g., Data set, Unpublished raw data, etc.).
  • Italicize the names of data sets.

Here are some examples:

Brazilian Department of Soccer Statistics. (2007). Goal scoring efficiency of forwards in a state of post-carnival inebriation, 1999-2004 [Data set]. Retrieved July 8, 2019, from https://brasiliasoccerfoundation.org/mental-health/datasets/ 

Cramp, I. E. (2008). Catholic prayer benches and arthritis rates [Data set]. Pews Research Society. https://doi.org/10.4888/DLKFJ9932

Vanspronsen, T. (2001). [Unpublished raw data on impostor syndrome at the administrative level]. University of Zenith.

For links to important data sets and repositories, check out this APA page.

Software

Let’s start with the basic format:

Author, A. A. (Year). Title of work (Version number) [Computer software]. Publisher or app store. URL

Notes:

  • You can leave out the version number.
  • You can change the description in square brackets (e.g., Computer software, Mobile app, Equipment, etc.).
  • Italicize the title.

Here are two examples:

Alert, A. B. (2015). HyperAware Optimizer (Version 3.2) [Computer software]. Caffeine Logistics. https://www.caflogistics.com/

Innocuous Developers. Fun time-wasting game (Version 1.9) [Mobile app]. App Store. https://itunes.apple.com/ca/app/pernicious-data-collecting-applications/fun-game/19993

For more information, please consult pp. 337-41 of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).

Audio Visual Sources

Films and Videos

Benedict, E., & Scramble, T. (Directors). (1962). Breakfast epiphany [Film]. Singular Productions.

Vilnius, R. (Director). (2015). Unboxing the latest antidepressants from Senegal [Film; two-disc speical ed. on Blu-ray]. Lithuanian Lithium Association. https://www.liliass.org/antidepressants/

Youtube Videos

Manning, C. [Styledog]. (2011, December 5). How to cite videos in APA [Video]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dCXdpfE7y8Y

Podcasts

Jones, A. (Host), & Jones, B. (Executive Producer). (2017-2018). Planet sunny [Audio Podcast]. Smile Productions. https://itunes.apple.com/podcasts/planet-sunny

Podcast Episode

Radcliffe, N. (Host). (2015, September 15). The one that got away (No. 23) [Audio podcast episode]. In Lab Rats. https://labratsradio.com/

Television Series

Willburg, C., & Flincher, D. (Executive producers). (2011-17). Thirteen unlucky teens [TV series].  Rooibos TV.

Television Episode

Ornery, F. (Writer), & Flincher, D. (Director). (2017, May 5). Matilda’s cat [TV series episode]. In C. Willburg (Executive producer), Thirteen unlucky teens. Rooibos TV.

Music Album

Brundage, K. (2015). Waking up beside you [Album]. Bottled Angst Records.

Single Song

Brundage, K. (2015). What’s that tattoo? [Song]. On Waking up beside you [CD]. Bottled Angst Records.

Photograph

Clefbom, C. (2015). Apple tree in the backyard [Photograph]. Clefbom Museum.

For more information about citing audio-visual sources, please see pp. 341-47 of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).

Social Media and Websites

Social Media

The basic format for citing social media is as follows:

Author, A. A. (Year, Month and day). Title [Description of audiovisuals]. Site name. URL

Note that the title is typically the wording of the social media post (up to 20 words). If the post does not include any audiovisuals or links, just leave out the description in square brackets.

Twitter

When citing a tweet, be sure to add [Tweet] after the title and description:

Grump, D. [@BGrumpy99]. (2019, December 24]. Will probably be disappointed with my Christmas presents (again). 🙁 #ChristmasSucks [Image attached] [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/BGrumpy99/status/1938798317498374

You can omit the description of audiovisuals in square brackets, or else provide a different wording (e.g., Link attached).

You can also cite a Twitter profile. In this case, provide a retrieval date, since the content may change:

Grump, D. [@BGrumpy99]. (n.d.). Tweets [Twitter profile]. Twitter. Retrieved January 22, 2020, from https://twitter.com/BGrumpy99

You may replace “Tweets” with other parts of the Twitter profile (e.g., lists, moments, topics).

Post on Facebook, Tumblr, etc.

Here’s an example of a Facebook post:

Sophie and Sebastian. (2019, September 14). Excited to share another fun children’s story [Image and link attached] [Status update]. Facebook. https://www.facebook.com/SophieandSebastian/posts/32345666

You can tailor this for other social media posts. Change the descriptions in brackets to suit your needs. For example, for Instagram you would might write [Photographs] instead of [Status update].

To cite a Facebook page, make sure you indicate the specific page title (home, photos, etc.):

Russia Hoax Conspiracy Society. (n.d.). Photos [Facebook page]. Facebook. Retrieved August 2, 2018, from https://www.facebook.com/russiahoax

You’ll note that this reference has a lot in common with the Twitter profile citation above.

Emojis

Try to retain emojis if possible. If you are unable to create the same emoji, you can describe it in square brackets:

🙂

[grinning face]

For a list of emojis, see the Unicode website.

Forum Post

Cassidy, B. (2017, December 5). So I am writing a paper on the psychology of train robbers and I wonder if any of you could [Online forum post]. Reddit. https://wwww.reddit.com/robberyforum/trains_comments

Notice that even though the post keeps going, we’ve cut it off after 20 words.

Webpages

Let’s start with the basic format:

Author, A. A. (Year, Month and day). Title. Site. URL

Here is an example of a webpage:

Bauer, A. (2017, August 21). My view of the eclipse. Andy’s Science Blog. https://www.andysscienceblog.com/eclipse

If you’re interacting with multiple pages from the same website, you’ll have to cite each one separately.

If you want to cite an entire website, don’t do so in the reference list. Just mention the website in your text and provide the URL in parentheses.

If the author and the site title are the same, omit the latter. If the page is likely to change over time, provide a retrieval date:

Geese Unlimited. (n.d.). Why ducks are overrated (the latest stats). Retrieved October 22, 2020, from https:/www/geeseunlimited.com/ducks

For more information, please consult pp. 348-52 of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).

Archival Sources

Introduction

Sometimes you may have to cite a source from a print collection or repository. Such works are often in limited circulation and may be hard to find. Provide as much information as will help the reader locate the item in question.

Basic Format

Here is the basic format:

Author, A. A. (Date of publication). Title [Description]. Collection name (retrieval information). Repository, Location.

Note that the description in square brackets is optional. It best to provide some extra description when the title is not very informative, or when the source lacks a title altogether.

The retrieval information consists of call numbers, box numbers, and so forth—basically whatever system the collection uses to categorize and sort entries.

Variants

Item in a Repository

The following example shows how you might cite a letter in an archive.

Tomlinson, B. N. (1891, September 13). [Letter to M. B. F. Spinks]. Onomasticon Archive (Spinks files, Box C133). Harrisburg, PA.

If the item comes from a private collection (so not housed in an official archive), delete the repository and location information and insert a reference to the private collector:

Nichols, C. (2003, May 1). [Letter to B. Appleyard]. Copy in possession of Bernice Stenson.

If you yourself possess the item, write Copy in possession of author.

However, if there is no way for the reader to access the source (e.g., if Bernice Stenson hates visitors), then provide only an in-text citation, and omit the entry from your reference list.

Multiple Items from the Same Collection

If you’re citing more than once from the same collection, provide just one entry:

Jones, E. T. (1875-1903). Correspondence. Jones Collection (CBG 199.004). Behavioural Psychology Archives, Oxbridge University, Oxbridge, England.

Within the body of your text you can then provide more detailed information:

(Jones, 1875-1903, Jones to B. Prinz, September 3, 1902)

Interviews

If an interview is found in an archive, you can cite it as follows:

Killjoy, S. (2014, March 3). Interview by C. J. Stander [Tape recording]. History of Tooth Brushing Archive (BS3098.55). Oral History Library, Colgate University, Hamilton Village, NY.

Note that the person interviewed is listed as the author.

If the interview is transcribed, then omit or change the description in square brackets.

Conclusion

For other archival sources, adapt the basic format as necessary. To know your options, check out our page on the parts of an entry, and use the links provided.

More Resources

Introduction

We hope you’ve enjoyed our guide to the APA citation style. Please use the links below to access additional resources.

Citing Legal Sources

At some point we may provide our own page on citing legal sources. For now, please consult the following pages:

APA Essay Format

To learn how to format your essay properly, please visit the APA page in our Essay Writing section.

 

APA Quick Guide

Introduction

Welcome to our quick guide for citing sources following the guidelines set out in the APA Style Guide (6th ed.). Scan the list for the type of citation you need. Then click on the link to find detailed instructions.

All Citations

Books

Book (basic format)
Print book
Print book read online
Electronic book
Edited multi-volume work
Edition with author and editor
Republished work
Translated work
Book chapter
Online reference work

Periodicals

Article (basic format)
Article in print
Article with DOI
Article without DOI
Article with more than 7 authors
Advance online publication
Publication in a preprint archive
Magazine article
Newspaper article
Monograph
Special issue or section
Article abstract

Meetings and Presentations

Symposium proceedings
Paper or poster presentation
Conference proceedings
Presentation abstract

Theses

Unpublished dissertation or thesis
Dissertation from the web
Abstract

Reviews

Book review (basic format)
Film review from a blog

Data Sets, Software, Tools

Basic format
Data set
Software

Audio-Visual Sources

Video
Podcast
TV series
Music recording
Photo

Other Online Sources

Blog post
Online video
Forum post

Archival Sources

Archival source (basic format)
Item in a repository
Multiple items from the same collection
Interview